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Aside from the fact that salt is one of the most common condiments used around the world, it is also important in the pond keeping industry since it has been proven that sodium chloride can make the pond better and make the fish in it a little happier.

It is not widely known for salt or sodium chloride to be a good supply used in pond maintenance. Well it is actually capable of promoting better pond health and making the fish happier. The sodium element in salt is needed in the pond in order to supply electrolytes in the water which are necessary for the health of pond fish. The salt aids the process of osmoregulation which is needed by the fish in the pond so that they can absorb the right amount of water they need in their body. Apart from this, the sodium in pond salt also help recompense for the ions that the fish normally lose.

It is unavoidable for a pond to have a slime build-up right at the bottom. This is due to the excessive food droppings and other debris that accumulate in the pond which form muck at the bottom. The slime can lead to bad bacteria amass and other virus types influx in the pond water. Because of these occurrences, the defence mechanism of the fish may go down thus making them prone to certain infections and sicknesses. It is but a requirement to have the pond regularly checked and make sure that the fish are getting the ample electrolytes needed by the fish to survive.

For a pond that houses freshwater fish, it is necessary to increase the amount of pond salt in the water to meet the required levels of electrolytes needed by the fish. These electrolytes are needed to help fluids to move with ease on the fish's bodies bringing about the natural body mucous coating of the fish. This coating is needed to repel parasite, viruses and bacteria that may cause the fish to be ill. Another type of mucous body coating can be increased with the help of pond salt and that type of mucous is necessary for the fish to survive the temperature brought about by the winter season.

Pond salt is also capable of aiding other beneficial processes in the pond. One of which is the mucostimulation. This process is needed in the pond in order to fight the fish irritation caused by ammonia and nitrite present in the pond most especially if the pond filters do not work properly. The chloride anion present in pond salt will compete with the nitrite anion that enters the fish gills thus decreasing the irritation. Mucostimulation, as the name implies, is responsible for the increase of protective slime coating on fish skins. For overcrowded pond, pond salt is indeed necessary to calm the fish in the water. Overpopulated ponds are usually caused by nitrite toxicity. Therefore, if the nitrites in the pond are dealt with through pond salt, the stress that the fish will have will be lessened.

About the Author

Keep your pond healthy with pond salt. Use the right water treatment for ponds to gradually beautify your precious water features.

Mud Pond Fish Harvest

Aquarium Pet

admin — Sun, 11 Sep 2011 08:41:35 +0000

Aquarium Pet

What is a good exotic pet for an aquarium?

hello. i should first let u all know that i know what i am doing. i have and have had multiple exotic pets over the years, and find myself having created an underwater vivarium, and at the same time having no idea what to do with it. so ive decided to make it the home of some sort of lucky creature.
Does anyone have any clue as to what i should put in it? (45 gallon)
Fish?
Newts?
Turtles?

A BLUE LOBSTER!!!

the most wicked pets ever

New Water Proof 57 LED Blue Aquarium Turtle Fish Tank LED Lights pet Support
US $.46

12 LIVE RED CHERRY SHRIMP cute pets for freshwater fish tanks aquariums
US $19.96

Waterproof 42 Blue LED Aquarium Fish Turtle Tank Light Strip Bar Pet Support New
US $1.28

365CM 12ft Aquarium Fish Turtle Tank 42 LED White Bar Waterproof Light Pet New
US $1.28

Water Proof 57 LED 475CM Blue Aquarium Turtle Fish Tank LED Lights pet Support
US $.46

100cm Waterproof Aquarium Pet Fish Tank Decoration Blue New LED Light in Adapter
US $.99

27CM 089FT Submerged 30 LED Aquarium Fish Tank Blue Light Pet Support New
US $.96

365cm 12ft Waterproof 42 Blue LED Aquarium Fish Turtle Tank Light Bar Pet New
US $1.28

365CM 12ft Aquarium Fish Tank 42 LED White Light Bar Waterproof Pet Support A
US $1.28

27CM 089FT Submerged 30 LED Aquarium Fish Frog Tank Blue Light Pet New A
US $.96

L Driftwood w fine caves detail pet fish insect garden aquarium apisto plants
US $5.90

M Fine Driftwood pet aquarium terrarium shop display showcase natural art deco
US $5.90

WOW 6 LIVE RED CHERRY SHRIMP COOL AQUARIUM PETS START A FEEDER FARM
US $9.99

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US $1.28

ChristmasOrnamentAquariumFishMarineFish BowlOceanPetsTropical FishPVC
US $3.99

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US $10.99

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US $7.99

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US $25.00

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US $5.99

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US $15.00

Setting Up A Saltwater Aquarium An Owners Guide to a Happy Healthy Pet by
US $12.95

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US $6.99

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US $3.99

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US $3.99

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US $9.99

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US $3.76

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US $14.96

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US $3.49

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US $29.99

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US $3.99

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US $4.99

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US $4.99

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US $9.96

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US $11.99

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US $14.99

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US $49.99

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US $14.96

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US $7.99

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US $17.99

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US $10.00

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US $19.96

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US $2.24

CICHLIDS The Pictorial Guide I pet aquarium fish book
US $39.96

Aquarium pet Water chiller Temperature 10OFF ATC 300
US $27.90

4 300 Watt Aquarium Submersible Heaters pet FREE GIFTS
US $51.99

Aquarium Plants in Freshwater

Keeping an aquarium is one of the favorite hobbies of people all over the world. They are a sight to see that do not only make a room wonderful but also eases the mind the emotion when you see one. Fishes that swim the clear water and the accessories inside are very interesting as they try to resemble that of a natural habitat in the sea or ocean.

But fishes are not only the things that are needed in an aquarium. To make it more natural looking, you will need the help of freshwater aquarium plants. They do not only make the aquarium look like a natural sea or pond but also provides your pet fishes the abode that they like. They are also essential in the living of the fishes because as we know they provide the animal's additional oxygen.

Freshwater aquarium plants can also provide a natural habitat for fishes, especially the young ones. There are species of fishes that also eat live plants. Most of all, for those whose hobby lies on the aquarium keeping, these kinds of plants provide the right landscaping in the container. Contrary to its name, there are types of freshwater that can grew partially submerged in the water.

Here is a list of freshwater aquarium plants that you can look for to place in your aquarium. This is not a complete list but it includes most of the popular ones being used by people.

-Amazon frogbit -Giant ambulia
-Dwarf ambulia -Cardinal flower
-Glandular ludwigia -Creeping ludwigia
-Creeping Jenny -Water clover
-Java fern -Brazilian milfoil
-Foxtail -Tiger lotus
-Red and blue water lily -Banana plant
-Water lettuce -water spangles
-Water cabbage -Lizard's tail

There are many ways in which you can buy your own freshwater aquarium plants. There are such websites in the internet that sell them. There are also local nurseries in your area that can help you find the right one for your aquarium. Pet stores have these kind of plants too for they know that naturally their customers will look for them too. There are times when the websites selling such plants have auction sales so you need to be on look-out for it.

In buying the freshwater aquarium plant for your aquarium, be sure that you will pick one that suits your fishes and the size of your aquarium. Of course, do not select those that can cover the beauty of the fishes that you have. It should be proportionate to the number of your fishes and the size of your container. Tendency is that the fishes will stay hidden in the leaves of such plants so that you will end up looking for them every time you want to look at them. They should also be of various types to avoid the monotonous effect in the aquarium. Vary them in color and size too so that indeed your aquarium will really look like a natural habitat for your pets. Arrange them in such a manner that they adapt the area as well as the other accessories in the aquarium like the rocks and shells which you might also add in your container.

About the Author

For further information about Aquarium Plants in Freshwater, feel free to visit Cichlid Care Guide

Shedd Aquarium - Pet Training the Shedd Way

Plants Decor

admin — Tue, 06 Sep 2011 19:16:59 +0000

Plants Decor

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US $4.09

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US $.01

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US $.01

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US $.01

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US $.01

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US $.02

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US $.01

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US $.01

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US $.01

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US $.02

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US $3.75

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US $.02

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US $5.00

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US $.02

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US $9.99

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US $.02

Heater thermometer plants decorations and more
US $.99

LARGE ARTIFICAL PLANT IN GREEN PLANTER 4Y HOME DECOR
US $4.00

Aquarium Ornament Decoration Tree Trunk w Plants for Fish Tank
US $7.00

Country Kitchen Decorating Ideas

Country kitchen decorating ideas are for any person who gets pleasure from the warm, earthy feeling of the simplicity of nature. Decorating country kitchen is among the most popular types of interior decorating. This is because of the overall feeling of being welcoming and friendly that country kitchen decorating has to offer those who own the kitchen, as well as any guests and visitors.

If you are considering country and kitchen and decorating ideas, then you will need to decide if you're going to be limiting it to your kitchen, or if you'll be spreading it throughout your home. You will also need to look into the ideas and country kitchen and decorating ideas budget that you'll have available to get the job done.

Next you can get some inspiration for you next country:

Colors: A country style kitchen usually includes fresh, clean, and warm colors. These may include yellows, browns, greens, whites, and pinks, in their medium shades. They can also be accents in the fruits, flowers, vegetables, plants, and other accessories that you can add to your country kitchen decorating idea.

Furniture: Country kitchen decorating ideas usually include furniture in lighter woods, as well as wicker furniture. Floral and gingham patterns flatter the upholstery of chairs and couches well, by either purchasing new furniture or creating slip covers for your existing furniture.

Flooring: Most country kitchen floors will be created in tile, flagstone or natural wood. A cheaper option, with the same feeling, is a laminate or a wall-to-wall carpet in light shade. Braided or hooked rugs can add an authentic look.

Accessories: The best accessories for decorating you kitchen are the ones your family enjoys. It can be painting of rustic scenes or photos in wooden frames. Other options are candles, lace curtains and plants.

Decorating a country kitchen can be very fun. Just be open to new ideas and pick the ones, you like the best.

About the Author

Martin Elmer is writing about washing machines in Vaskemaskiner. Read more about buying washing machines in vaske tørremaskine.

Close-up Roses Lilies Flowers Garden Decor Plants Rose Lily Views Pictures Published by BK Bazhe.com

Replacement Light

admin — Tue, 16 Aug 2011 20:07:25 +0000

Replacement Light

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Will an oem fog light replacement fit my car even when my car never came with fog lights from factory?

The fog lights are for my car, I have a 2002 Mazda protege lx. all though, my car never came with fog lights, however my car's bumper has the openings to install these fog lights. But will i be able to complete the wiring and get them to work on my car?

you may well find that your car has the wiring loom to fit fog/driving lights the reason for this is cost cheaper to make all the same rather than have several different looms just a case of locating where the plugs are hidden and then away you go
if not there you will still be able to have the lights wired in to your car but for safety reasons have them wired to a fuse and a relay

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BMW E36 M3 brake light switch replacement

Guinea Pigs Resources:

ceiling fan light replacement globes

Compact Bio

admin — Sun, 07 Aug 2011 02:01:30 +0000

Compact Bio

i have a bio project. i have to represent a compact and completely disorganized chromosomes?

so it has to start out completely crazy
and then somehow shrink and become compact
what materials could i use. (i cant use fire. sadly)
what about with water?

I would get a whole bunch of paper clips and link them together and get some magnets and when you apply the magnets everything clumps around the magnets.

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Organic Lawn Care for the DIY Crowd

Do you want a healthy lawn that is safe for people, pets and the environment; a lawn free of dangerous chemical fertilizers, insecticides and herbicides? Go organic! It's, easy to maintain, and, cheaper in the long run.

How and where do you begin? Your lawn is as healthy as the soil it grows in. Healthy soil is the most important aspect of a healthy lawn. Extensive research has shown that healthy soil has many benefits for the organic lawn. Many weeds are simply choked out. Root systems develop to provide drought-resistance and hardiness. Insect and disease problems are minimized.

Healthy soil contains naturally occurring potassium, nitrogen and phosphorus as well as billions of beneficial microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, protozoa and larger creatures like earthworms that build soil structure. Chemically treated lawns, in contrast, have very little life because, over time, the fertilizers and pesticides kill or slow down these helpful creatures. The underlying basis of organic lawn care practices is the management of a soil in which the biotic character is preserved.

Weeds, insects, and lawn disease are messengers that tell you what's wrong with your soil. "You can hide the message and kill the messengers with chemical fertilizers, insecticides and herbicides, but it doesn't kill the message. A green lawn is not necessarily a healthy lawn. Organic lawn care eliminates or greatly lessons the message.

Healthy soil needs organic material. Organic matter provides nutrients, moisture retention, texture, and an environment to sustain high populations of microorganisms. Fertile soil is essential for a healthy lawn. There are two classes of organic material: green organic material such as fresh grass clippings, manure and other living plants (weeds) and plant products contain large amounts of nitrogen, and brown organic material such as dried leaves and plants, branches, and woody materials (leaf stems) have high carbon content but are relatively low in nitrogen.

Basically, Green materials supply food for the biolife (bacteria, fungi, and small invertebrates such as worms) which intern manufacture, supply, and facilitate nutrient uptake for the plants. The Brown materials provide a home for the Green material biolife. The decomposition of both green and brown organic materials becomes organic matter or Humus.

Compacted soils cause unhealthy lawns. They stay soggy when wet, and turn rock hard when they dry out in the summer. When soils are "tight", necessary air, water and nutrients cannot move through the soil easily. Disease occurs. Roots are stunted. Beneficial micro-organisms can't survive. Plants are stressed and weakened. When you are doing everything else right, soil compaction will ruin all your efforts. One of the secrets to a great lawn is having a porous, well-aerated soil where roots can grow deeply and biolife can thrive. According to the experts, the best soils should contain about 25% air. When the soil is well aerated and bioactive, roots grow deeper and plants are much healthier. The soil drains faster when wet, but it actually holds more water when the conditions are dry.

Until recently, lawn aeration was accomplished using heavy, expensive mechanical core aerators that poked holes (cores) in the lawn every 6 inches at a depth of 2-3 inches and leaves a big mess. Now there are bio-enhanced liquid aerators with added bio-activators to help speed up your soil's regeneration and detoxification that can be applied with a garden hose with a hose end sprayer (less than $15.00).

Natural Lawn Aeration:

Helps loosen clay and reduce compaction
Eliminates the need for mechanical aeration
Improves water retention during drought
Bio-activates and detoxifies the soil
Helps reduce disease
Improves rooting
Helps wet soils drain faster
Maximizes fertilizer benefits
Safe around sprinklers and trees

Organic control of insect infestations

Brix value and Insects

A liver is necessary to digest sugar. If an insect, which does not have a liver, ingests sugar, that sugar will eventually turn to alcohol and kill the insect. Insects instinctively know this, and plants with high Brix value (and, as a result, high sugar content) will emit different UV light patterns and electrical charges which communicate to insects that they should stay away.

Unfortunately, it has become the norm to ignore those warning signs and simply kill off all the bugs – either with some toxic chemical or with some natural alternative. Of course, of those two options, the natural insecticide is certainly the better option, but it still does not address the central problem of this situation. The bugs are there for areason. The plant is not healthy. Make the plant healthy and the sugar content of the plant will rise, the insects will move on to a more attractive food source.

Most grasses have such low Brix value (typically no greater than about 6 or 8 and often much lower) that insects will feed on them all day long. Raising the Brix of a plant is really quite simple. Provide good nutrition, including a balanced diet of macro and micronutrients and trace elements. Organic fertilizers and soil amendments such as Humic Acid will provide much better nutrition to any plant than chemical fertilizers will. Some fertilizers will raise Brix values more effectively than others will. For instance, kelp fertilizers are probably the most effective means to improving the overall nutrition of any plant (and, therefore, the Brix value) because most kelp fertilizers are made from Kelp grown in very cold, virtually toxin free and nutrient dense waters, such as the North Atlantic. Since kelp is a plant itself, the macro and micronutrients it provides are completely balanced and easily available to a plant. Thus, the addition of kelp to any fertilization program is probably the easiest way to increase the Brix value of that plant, which includes grass. Therefore, adding regular doses of kelp to your lawn care and landscaping fertilization program will increase the Brix of your grass and plants. The higher that Brix value gets the less insect and disease problems you will have. if you have any sort of insect problem, it is a fact that your lawn is receiving very poor nutrition, and is, therefore, very sickly, even if it doesn't necessarily look sick at this particular moment. Improve the nutrition the plant is receiving and the bugs will move elsewhere.

Organic Weed Control

Most broadleaf weeds prefer a soil pH of 7.0 or above. Most turf grasses prefer a pH of about 6.3. There are 2 exceptions: St. Augustine (prefers a pH of 7.5) and Centipede (prefers a pH of 5.0). Adding sulfur to your soil can deter weeds. Most weeds require full sunlight. Keeping your grass height to 2-1/2 to 3 inches will shade and deter weed growth.

Corn gluten applied in the spring will stop new weed growth by eliminating weed seed germination.

For more tips, information and easy to use liquid organic lawn care products, visit our website

About the Author

Age: 62, There's a lot of experience in these gray hairs!

Education: Master of Science in Quality Management, Quality Control

Status: Married 38 years, 4 children, 10 grandkids

Company: The Organic lawn Care Store - http://www.theorganiclawncarestore.com/

Compact digester for producing biogas from food waste

From Japan

admin — Sun, 31 Jul 2011 19:59:32 +0000

From Japan

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How long would it take for a CD to be shipped from Japan to Indiana using standard shipping?

I ordered a CD from Japan last week. The order tracking thing says it was shipped on the 25th. How long (with customs and everything) will it take to get to Northern Indiana?

The postal system in Japan is quite good. It should only take about a week. If you get the Japanese version of Express Mail next time, it will tell you exactly where it is, including if its still in customs.

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Watch Paraguay vs Japan Live Streaming Online World Cup 2010

World Cup – Paraguay vs Japan
Paraguay vs Japan live online
Match date: 29 June, 2010 – Kick Off : 16:00(CET)/14:00(GMT/UTC)
Watch Paraguay vs Japan live stream Soccer World Cup FIFA 1/8 finals TV online 2010 game on PC.
The World Cup 2010 being held in South Africa, from the 11th June untill the 11th July.
The best football once every four years. Don't miss the great action.

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NEWS: Japan soccer engine to rely on Honda

By MIKE ZEISBERGER

JOHANNESBURG — They are about to boldly go where no Japanese or Paraguayan cleats have gone before.

Never in the history of the World Cup has a team from Japan or Paraguay ever competed in a quarter-final game of soccer's most prestigious tournament.

But that will change at South Africa 2010, with the winner of Tuesday's Paraguay-Japan Round of 16 contest at Pretoria's Loftus Versfeld Stadium advancing to a date in the World Cup's final eight.

And, for one-time beleaguered Japanese coach Takeshi Okada, nothing would be sweeter.

Just five weeks ago, Okada offered his resignation to the powers that be after Japan dropped a 2-0 game to rival South Korea on May 24, the team's final home contest before the World Cup.

Good thing the suits running the team didn't accept it.

Ripped and shredded by media and fans alike not so long ago, Okada has found a way to turn the ship around, thanks to a style of play that made Japan one of the more dynamic sides in the opening round of play.

Having said that, Okada's squad will be up against a stingy Paraguayan defence that smothered opponents the past two outings, recording shutouts in both.

"All South American teams are not necessarily the same, but Paraguay have a very similar game to Chile," Okada said. "They've got a very solid back line, they push forward in numbers and switch quickly from defence to attack."

Okada will be relying heavily on Keisuke Honda, one of the top players in the tournament to this point. Honda is especially lethal on free kicks, having bent one in against Denmark in Japan's 3-1 first-round victory that allowed it to reach this point.

In a tournament dominated by South American teams, Honda will have to carry a significant amount of the load for Japan. Should he find a way to do that, Japan might be primed for an upset special.

About the Author

'Radiation turns up in all kinds of food products in Japan'

Coral Cheap

admin — Sun, 24 Jul 2011 06:38:21 +0000

Coral Cheap

Where can I buy the cheapest saltwater fish and coral online?

i use bluezooaquatics.com

from florida i like saltwaterfish.com

from california i use bluezoo, liveaquaria, oceanproaquatics.com

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5 Facts about Coral Calcium

These days the craze for authentic coral calcium has gone through the roof! Everybody seems to be after the wonder calcium supplement without actually knowing the facts about the same. This lack of knowledge of the product is being exploited by spurious dealers and sell you the fossilized version of the coral calcium or even cheap quality calcium carbonate powder, in case your source for drug procurement is not authentic.

5 facts about coral calcium are listed here as the battle against the myths goes on!

1. Stay Young: The main difference between normal calcium supplements and coral calcium is that the latter contains a whole lot of other minerals too that help in slowing down aging! That also includes prevention of sagging skin – for those who are worried about Botox therapies! The other minerals combined with the coral calcium from Okinawa, Japan help maintain the pH balance in the body and at the same time, slow down the aging process.

2. Strengthen Your Bones and Keep Healthy: Corals are the richest source of calcium present in nature. The fossilized version is majorly calcium too but it also contains a lot of other harmful metal salts as well. But the coral calcium found in the shores of Okinawa is the best in the industry. These corals are specially ‘farmed' these days to keep up with the increasing consumption of the same day by day.

Calcium which is present in the body and in the blood stream works wonders by strengthening bones and joints in the human body. Proteins may be the starting link of the body, but it is the calcium which maintains the healthy being. Healthy and strong bones also mean a healthier and a robust body! Not to mention the strong white teeth, that would be a reality now. The important part is to inculcate the habit of intake of a balanced diet early on.

3. Ward off Diseases: Calcium as most of us would know helps maintain the acidity in the body. It acts as a pH buffer for those who are more interested in their chemistry. Too much acidity in the body and cells begin to degenerate. Therefore calcium combined with Vitamin D prevents degenerative diseases and thus keeps you up and running from within!

4. Get More Vitamins! One might wonder as to how they could get more vitamins and minerals by supplementing their diet with adequate calcium. It so happens is that the calcium present in the body makes the absorption, synthesis and production of vitamins and minerals in the body in a more pronounced manner. It therefore paves the way for a better vitamin absorption capacity of the body and in turn keeps you free from diseases.

5. Save the Planet: If you're having calcium supplements from the coral reefs in Okinawa, Japan – you're actually saving the planet! Your purchase of Okinawa corals ensures that the reefs which are biodiversity hotspots are not destroyed by illegal traders and industries that engage in malpractices. Keeping in tune with the same, you're also preventing the destruction of the natural and crucial link in the marine food chain! Do you bit for the planet – insist on coral calcium products!

About the Author

RobertBarefoot.com has been providing the highest quality nutritional supplements including Coral Calcium for over 10 years. To learn how vitamin and mineral supplements can improve your health and quality of life, visit http://www.robertbarefoot.com

Kraylen's Lab - How to Propagate a Chalice Coral Cheap and Simple.

Bulk Pond

admin — Sat, 16 Jul 2011 20:53:01 +0000

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Surface tension

Cause

Diagram of the forces on two molecules of liquid.

This paper clip which was under the water level, has risen gently and smoothly. Surface tension prevents the paper clip from submerging and from overflowing the blue glass.

Surface tension is caused by the attraction between the liquid's molecules by various intermolecular forces. In the bulk of the liquid, each molecule is pulled equally in every direction by neighbouring liquid molecules, resulting in a net force of zero. At the surface of the liquid, the molecules are pulled inwards by other molecules deeper inside the liquid and are not attracted as intensely by the molecules in the neighbouring medium (be it vacuum, air or another liquid). Therefore, all of the molecules at the surface are subject to an inward force of molecular attraction which is balanced only by the liquid's resistance to compression, meaning there is no net inward force. However, there is a driving force to diminish the surface area. Therefore, the surface area of the liquid shrinks until it has the lowest surface area possible. That explains the spherical shapes of water droplets.

Another way to view it is that a molecule in contact with a neighbour is in a lower state of energy than if it weren't in contact with a neighbour. The interior molecules all have as many neighbours as they can possibly have. But the boundary molecules have fewer neighbours than interior molecules and are therefore in a higher state of energy. For the liquid to minimize its energy state, it must minimize its number of boundary molecules and must therefore minimize its surface area.

As a result of surface area minimization, a surface will assume the smoothest shape it can (mathematical proof that "smooth" shapes minimize surface area relies on use of the Euleragrange equation). Since any curvature in the surface shape results in greater area, a higher energy will also result. Consequently the surface will push back against any curvature in much the same way as a ball pushed uphill will push back to minimize its gravitational potential energy.

Effects in everyday life

Water beading on a leaf

Water dripping from a tap

The effects of surface tension can be seen with ordinary water:

Beading of rain water on the surface of a waxed automobile. Water adheres weakly to wax and strongly to itself, so water clusters into drops. Surface tension gives them their near-spherical shape, because a sphere has the smallest possible surface area to volume ratio

Formation of drops occurs when a mass of liquid is stretched. The animation shows water adhering to the faucet gaining mass until it is stretched to a point where the surface tension can no longer bind it to the faucet. It then separates and surface tension forms the drop into a sphere. If a stream of water were running from the faucet, the stream would break up into drops during its fall. Gravity stretches the stream, then surface tension pinches it into spheres.

Flotation of objects denser than water occurs when the object is nonwettable and its weight is small enough to be borne by the forces arising from surface tension.

Separation of oil and water is caused by a tension in the surface between dissimilar liquids. This type of surface tension is called "interface tension", but its physics are the same.

Tears of wine is the formation of drops and rivulets on the side of a glass containing an alcoholic beverage. Its cause is a complex interaction between the differing surface tensions of water and ethanol.

Surface tension is visible in other common phenomena, especially when certain substances, surfactants, are used to decrease it:

Soap bubbles have very large surface areas with very little bulk. Bubbles in pure water are unstable. The addition of surfactants, however, can have a stabilizing effect on the bubbles (see Marangoni effect). Notice that surfactants actually reduce the surface tension of water by a factor of three or more.

Emulsions are a type of solution in which surface tension plays a role. Tiny fragments of oil suspended in pure water will spontaneously assemble themselves into much larger masses. But the presence of a surfactant provides a decrease in surface tension, which permits stability of minute droplets of oil in the bulk of water (or vice versa).

Basic physics

Two definitions

Diagram shows, in cross-section, a needle floating on the surface of water. Its weight, Fw, depresses the surface, and is balanced by the surface tension forces on either side, Fs, which are each parallel to the water's surface at the points where it contacts the needle. Notice that the horizontal components of the two Fs arrows point in opposite directions, so they cancel each other, but the vertical components point in the same direction and therefore add up to balance Fw.

Surface tension, represented by the symbol is defined as the force along a line of unit length, where the force is parallel to the surface but perpendicular to the line. One way to picture this is to imagine a flat soap film bounded on one side by a taut thread of length, L. The thread will be pulled toward the interior of the film by a force equal to 2L (the factor of 2 is because the soap film has two sides, hence two surfaces). Surface tension is therefore measured in forces per unit length. Its SI unit is newton per metre but the cgs unit of dyne per cm is also used. One dyn/cm corresponds to 0.001 N/m.

An equivalent definition, one that is useful in thermodynamics, is work done per unit area. As such, in order to increase the surface area of a mass of liquid by an amount, A, a quantity of work, A, is needed. This work is stored as potential energy. Consequently surface tension can be also measured in SI system as joules per square metre and in the cgs system as ergs per cm2. Since mechanical systems try to find a state of minimum potential energy, a free droplet of liquid naturally assumes a spherical shape, which has the minimum surface area for a given volume.

The equivalence of measurement of energy per unit area to force per unit length can be proven by dimensional analysis.

Water striders

Water striders, a common neuston that skims on surface tension

Water striders use surface tension to walk on the surface of a pondydrophobic setae on the tarsi keep the insect afloat while an apical hydrophilic claw penetrates the surface, allowing it to "grip" the water. The surface of the water behaves like an elastic film: the insect's feet cause indentations in the water's surface, increasing its surface area. This represents an increase in potential energy through the surface tension of the water equal to the loss of potential energy of the insect's lowered center of mass.

Surface curvature and pressure

Surface tension forces acting on a tiny (differential) patch of surface. x and y indicate the amount of bend over the dimensions of the patch. Balancing the tension forces with pressure leads to the Youngaplace equation

If no force acts normal to a tensioned surface, the surface must remain flat. But if the pressure on one side of the surface differs from pressure on the other side, the pressure difference times surface area results in a normal force. In order for the surface tension forces to cancel the force due to pressure, the surface must be curved. The diagram shows how surface curvature of a tiny patch of surface leads to a net component of surface tension forces acting normal to the center of the patch. When all the forces are balanced, the resulting equation is known as the Youngaplace equation:

where:

p is the pressure difference.

is surface tension.

Rx and Ry are radii of curvature in each of the axes that are parallel to the surface.

The quantity in parentheses on the right hand side is in fact (twice) the mean curvature of the surface (depending on normalisation).

Solutions to this equation determine the shape of water drops, puddles, menisci, soap bubbles, and all other shapes determined by surface tension (such as the shape of the impressions that a water strider's feet make on the surface of a pond).

The table below shows how the internal pressure of a water droplet increases with decreasing radius. For not very small drops the effect is subtle, but the pressure difference becomes enormous when the drop sizes approach the molecular size. (Of course, in the limit of a single molecule the concept becomes meaningless.)

p for water drops of different radii at STP

Droplet radius

1 mm

0.1 mm

1 m

10 nm

p (atm)

0.0014

0.0144

1.436

143.6

Liquid surface as a computer

Minimal surface

To find the shape of the minimal surface bounded by some arbitrary shaped frame using strictly mathematical means can be a daunting task. Yet by fashioning the frame out of wire and dipping it in soap-solution, an approximately minimal surface will appear in the resulting soap-film within seconds. Without a single calculation, the soap-film arrives at a solution to a complex minimization equation on its own.

The reason for this is that the pressure difference across a fluid interface is proportional to the mean curvature, as seen in the Young-Laplace equation. For an open soap film, the pressure difference is zero, hence the mean curvature is zero, and minimal surfaces have the property of zero mean curvature.

Contact angles

Since no liquid can exist in a perfect vacuum for very long, the surface of any liquid is an interface between that liquid and some other medium. The top surface of a pond, for example, is an interface between the pond water and the air. Surface tension, then, is not a property of the liquid alone, but a property of the liquid's interface with another medium. If a liquid is in a container, then besides the liquid/air interface at its top surface, there is also an interface between the liquid and the walls of the container. The surface tension between the liquid and air is usually different (greater than) its surface tension with the walls of a container. And where the two surfaces meet, their geometry must be such that all forces balance.

Forces at contact point shown for contact angle greater than 90 (left) and less than 90 (right)

Where the two surfaces meet, they form a contact angle, , which is the angle the tangent to the surface makes with the solid surface. The diagram to the right shows two examples. Tension forces are shown for the liquid-air interface, the liquid-solid interface, and the solid-air interface. The example on the left is where the difference between the liquid-solid and solid-air surface tension, , is less than the liquid-air surface tension, , but is nevertheless positive, that is

In the diagram, both the vertical and horizontal forces must cancel exactly at the contact point. The horizontal component of is canceled by the adhesive force, .

The more telling balance of forces, though, is in the vertical direction. The vertical component of must exactly cancel the force, .

Liquid

Solid

Contact angle

water

soda-lime glass

lead glass

fused quartz

ethanol

diethyl ether

carbon tetrachloride

glycerol

acetic acid

water

paraffin wax

107

silver

methyl iodide

soda-lime glass

lead glass

fused quartz

mercury

soda-lime glass

140

Some liquid-solid contact angles

Since the forces are in direct proportion to their respective surface tensions, we also have:

where

is the liquid-solid surface tension,

is the liquid-air surface tension,

is the solid-air surface tension,

is the contact angle, where a concave meniscus has contact angle less than 90 and a convex meniscus has contact angle of greater than 90.

This means that although the difference between the liquid-solid and solid-air surface tension, , is difficult to measure directly, it can be inferred from the easily measured contact angle, , if the liquid-air surface tension, , is known.

This same relationship exists in the diagram on the right. But in this case we see that because the contact angle is less than 90, the liquid-solid/solid-air surface tension difference must be negative:

Special contact angles

Observe that in the special case of a water-silver interface where the contact angle is equal to 90, the liquid-solid/solid-air surface tension difference is exactly zero.

Another special case is where the contact angle is exactly 180. Water with specially prepared Teflon approaches this. Contact angle of 180 occurs when the liquid-solid surface tension is exactly equal to the liquid-air surface tension.

Methods of measurement

Surface tension can be measured using the pendant drop method on a goniometer.

Because surface tension manifests itself in various effects, it offers a number of paths to its measurement. Which method is optimal depends upon the nature of the liquid being measured, the conditions under which its tension is to be measured, and the stability of its surface when it is deformed.

Du Noy Ring method: The traditional method used to measure surface or interfacial tension. Wetting properties of the surface or interface have little influence on this measuring technique. Maximum pull exerted on the ring by the surface is measured.

A minimized version of Du Noy method uses a small diameter metal needle instead of a ring, in combination with a high sensitivity microbalance to record maximum pull. The advantage of this method is that very small sample volumes (down to few tens of microliters) can be measured with very high precision, without the need to correct for buoyancy (for a needle or rather, rod, with proper geometry). Further, the measurement can be performed very quickly, minimally in about 20 seconds. First commercial multichannel tensiometers [CMCeeker] were recently built based on this principle.

Wilhelmy plate method: A universal method especially suited to check surface tension over long time intervals. A vertical plate of known perimeter is attached to a balance, and the force due to wetting is measured.

Spinning drop method: This technique is ideal for measuring low interfacial tensions. The diameter of a drop within a heavy phase is measured while both are rotated.

Pendant drop method: Surface and interfacial tension can be measured by this technique, even at elevated temperatures and pressures. Geometry of a drop is analyzed optically. For details, see Drop.

Bubble pressure method (Jaeger's method): A measurement technique for determining surface tension at short surface ages. Maximum pressure of each bubble is measured.

Drop volume method: A method for determining interfacial tension as a function of interface age. Liquid of one density is pumped into a second liquid of a different density and time between drops produced is measured.

Capillary rise method: The end of a capillary is immersed into the solution. The height at which the solution reaches inside the capillary is related to the surface tension by the equation discussed below.

Stalagmometric method: A method of weighting and reading a drop of liquid.

Sessile drop method: A method for determining surface tension and density by placing a drop on a substrate and measuring the contact angle (see Sessile drop technique).

Test ink method: A method for measuring surface tension of substrats using test ink and interpreting the ink reaction. see video VIDEO to show Surface tension measurement

Effects

Liquid in a vertical tube

Main article: Capillary action

Diagram of a Mercury Barometer

An old style mercury barometer consists of a vertical glass tube about 1 cm in diameter partially filled with mercury, and with a vacuum (called Toricelli's vacuum) in the unfilled volume (see diagram to the right). Notice that the mercury level at the center of the tube is higher than at the edges, making the upper surface of the mercury dome-shaped. The center of mass of the entire column of mercury would be slightly lower if the top surface of the mercury were flat over the entire crossection of the tube. But the dome-shaped top gives slightly less surface area to the entire mass of mercury. Again the two effects combine to minimize the total potential energy. Such a surface shape is known as a convex meniscus.

The reason we consider the surface area of the entire mass of mercury, including the part of the surface that is in contact with the glass, is because mercury does not adhere at all to glass. So the surface tension of the mercury acts over its entire surface area, including where it is in contact with the glass. If instead of glass, the tube were made out of copper, the situation would be very different. Mercury aggressively adheres to copper. So in a copper tube, the level of mercury at the center of the tube will be lower rather than higher than at the edges (that is, it would be a concave meniscus). In a situation where the liquid adheres to the walls of its container, we consider the part of the fluid's surface area that is in contact with the container to have negative surface tension. The fluid then works to maximize the contact surface area. So in this case increasing the area in contact with the container decreases rather than increases the potential energy. That decrease is enough to compensate for the increased potential energy associated with lifting the fluid near the walls of the container.

Illustration of capillary rise and fall. Red=contact angle less than 90; blue=contact angle greater than 90

If a tube is sufficiently narrow and the liquid adhesion to its walls is sufficiently strong, surface tension can draw liquid up the tube in a phenomenon known as capillary action. The height the column is lifted to is given by:

where

is the height the liquid is lifted,

is the liquid-air surface tension,

is the density of the liquid,

is the radius of the capillary,

is the acceleration due to gravity,

is the angle of contact described above. Note that if is greater than 90, as with mercury in a glass container, the liquid will be depressed rather than lifted.

Puddles on a surface

Profile curve of the edge of a puddle where the contact angle is 180. The curve is given by the formula : where

Small puddles of water on a smooth clean surface have perceptible thickness.

Pouring mercury onto a horizontal flat sheet of glass results in a puddle that has a perceptible thickness. (Do not try this except under a fume hood. Mercury vapor is a toxic hazard.) The puddle will spread out only to the point where it is a little under half a centimeter thick, and no thinner. Again this is due to the action of mercury's strong surface tension. The liquid mass flattens out because that brings as much of the mercury to as low a level as possible. But the surface tension, at the same time, is acting to reduce the total surface area. The result is the compromise of a puddle of a nearly fixed thickness.

The same surface tension demonstration can be done with water, but only on a surface made of a substance that the water does not adhere to. Wax is such a substance. Water poured onto a smooth, flat, horizontal wax surface, say a waxed sheet of glass, will behave similarly to the mercury poured onto glass.

The thickness of a puddle of liquid on a surface whose contact angle is 180 is given by:

where

is the depth of the puddle in centimeters or meters.

is the surface tension of the liquid in dynes per centimeter or newtons per meter.

is the acceleration due to gravity and is equal to 980 cm/s2 or 9.8 m/s2

is the density of the liquid in grams per cubic centimeter or kilograms per cubic meter

Illustration of how lower contact angle leads to reduction of puddle depth

In reality, the thicknesses of the puddles will be slightly less than what is predicted by the above formula because very few surfaces have a contact angle of 180 with any liquid. When the contact angle is less than 180, the thickness is given by:

For mercury on glass, , , and , which gives . For water on paraffin at 25 C, , , and which gives .

The formula also predicts that when the contact angle is 0, the liquid will spread out into a micro-thin layer over the surface. Such a surface is said to be fully wettable by the liquid.

The break up of streams into drops

Intermediate stage of a jet breaking into drops. Radii of curvature in the axial direction are shown. Equation for the radius of the stream is , where is the radius of the unperturbed stream, is the amplitude of the perturbation, is distance along the axis of the stream, and is the wave number

Main article: Plateauayleigh instability

In day to day life we all observe that a stream of water emerging from a faucet will break up into droplets, no matter how smoothly the stream is emitted from the faucet. This is due to a phenomenon called the Plateauayleigh instability, which is entirely a consequence of the effects of surface tension.

The explanation of this instability begins with the existence of tiny perturbations in the stream. These are always present, no matter how smooth the stream is. If the perturbations are resolved into sinusoidal components, we find that some components grow with time while others decay with time. Among those that grow with time, some grow at faster rates than others. Whether a component decays or grows, and how fast it grows is entirely a function of its wave number (a measure of how many peaks and troughs per centimeter) and the radius of the original cylindrical stream.

Thermodynamics

As stated above, the mechanical work needed to increase a surface is . Hence at constant temperature and pressure, surface tension equals Gibbs free energy per surface area:

where is Gibbs free energy and is the area.

Thermodynamics requires that all spontaneous changes of state are accompanied by a decrease in Gibbs free energy.

From this it is easy to understand why decreasing the surface area of a mass of liquid is always spontaneous (), provided it is not coupled to any other energy changes. It follows that in order to increase surface area, a certain amount of energy must be added.

Gibbs free energy is defined by the equation, , where is enthalpy and is entropy. Based upon this and the fact that surface tension is Gibbs free energy per unit area, it is possible to obtain the following expression for entropy per unit area:

Kelvin's Equation for surfaces arises by rearranging the previous equations. It states that surface enthalpy or surface energy (different from surface free energy) depends both on surface tension and its derivative with temperature at constant pressure by the relationship.

Thermodynamics of soap bubble

The pressure inside an ideal (one surface) soap bubble can be derived from thermodynamic free energy considerations. At constant temperature and particle number, dT = dN = 0, the differential Helmholtz free energy is given by

where P is the difference in pressure inside and outside of the bubble, and is the surface tension. In equilbrium, dF = 0, and so,

For a spherical bubble, the volume and surface area are given simply by

and

Substituting these relations into the previous expression, we find

which is equivalent to the Young-Laplace equation when Rx = Ry. For real soap bubbles, the pressure is doubled due to the presence of two interfaces, one inside and one outside.

Influence of temperature

Temperature dependence of the surface tension of pure water

Temperature dependency of the surface tension of benzene

Surface tension is dependent on temperature. For that reason, when a value is given for the surface tension of an interface, temperature must be explicitly stated. The general trend is that surface tension decreases with the increase of temperature, reaching a value of 0 at the critical temperature. For further details see Etvs rule. There are only empirical equations to relate surface tension and temperature:

Etvs:

Here V is the molar volume of that substance, TC is the critical temperature and k is a constant valid for almost all substances. A typical value is k = 2.1 x 107 [J K1 mol-2/3] . For water one can further use V = 18 ml/mol and TC = 374 C.

A variant on Etvs is described by Ramay and Shields:

where the temperature offset of 6 kelvins provides the formula with a better fit to reality at lower temperatures.

Guggenheim-Katayama:

is a constant for each liquid and n is an empirical factor, whose value is 11/9 for organic liquids. This equation was also proposed by van der Waals, who further proposed that could be given by the expression, , where is a universal constant for all liquids, and is the critical pressure of the liquid (although later experiments found to vary to some degree from one liquid to another).

Both Guggenheim-Katayama and Etvs take into account the fact that surface tension reaches 0 at the critical temperature, whereas Ramay and Shields fails to match reality at this endpoint.

Influence of solute concentration

Solutes can have different effects on surface tension depending on their structure:

Little or no effect, for example sugar

Increase surface tension, inorganic salts

Decrease surface tension progressively, alcohols

Decrease surface tension and, once a minimum is reached, no more effect: surfactants

What complicates the effect is that a solute can exist in a different concentration at the surface of a solvent than in its bulk. This difference varies from one solute/solvent combination to another.

Gibbs isotherm states that:

is known as surface concentration, it represents excess of solute per unit area of the surface over what would be present if the bulk concentration prevailed all the way to the surface. It has units of mol/m2

is the concentration of the substance in the bulk solution.

is the gas constant and the temperature

Certain assumptions are taken in its deduction, therefore Gibbs isotherm can only be applied to ideal (very dilute) solutions with two components.

Influence of particle size on vapour pressure

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